diff --git a/api/check-hsts.js b/api/check-hsts.js
index 71382cb..9dfed13 100644
--- a/api/check-hsts.js
+++ b/api/check-hsts.js
@@ -1,8 +1,7 @@
 const https = require('https');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  const siteURL = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
+exports.handler = middleware(async (url, event, context) => {
   const errorResponse = (message, statusCode = 500) => {
     return {
       statusCode: statusCode,
@@ -16,15 +15,9 @@ exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
     };
   };
 
-  if (!siteURL) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'URL parameter is missing!' }),
-    };
-  }
 
   return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
-    const req = https.request(siteURL, res => {
+    const req = https.request(url, res => {
       const headers = res.headers;
       const hstsHeader = headers['strict-transport-security'];
 
@@ -60,4 +53,5 @@ exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
 
     req.end();
   });
-};
+});
+
diff --git a/api/content-links.js b/api/content-links.js
index 34e4205..45c3f50 100644
--- a/api/content-links.js
+++ b/api/content-links.js
@@ -1,48 +1,35 @@
 const axios = require('axios');
 const cheerio = require('cheerio');
 const urlLib = require('url');
+const commonMiddleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async (event, context) => {
-  let url = event.queryStringParameters.url;
-  
-  // Check if url includes protocol
-  if (!url.startsWith('http://') && !url.startsWith('https://')) {
-    url = 'http://' + url;
-  }
-  
-  try {
-    const response = await axios.get(url);
-    const html = response.data;
-    const $ = cheerio.load(html);
-    const internalLinksMap = new Map();
-    const externalLinksMap = new Map();
+const handler = async (url) => {
+  const response = await axios.get(url);
+  const html = response.data;
+  const $ = cheerio.load(html);
+  const internalLinksMap = new Map();
+  const externalLinksMap = new Map();
 
-    $('a[href]').each((i, link) => {
-      const href = $(link).attr('href');
-      const absoluteUrl = urlLib.resolve(url, href);
-      
-      if (absoluteUrl.startsWith(url)) {
-        const count = internalLinksMap.get(absoluteUrl) || 0;
-        internalLinksMap.set(absoluteUrl, count + 1);
-      } else if (href.startsWith('http://') || href.startsWith('https://')) {
-        const count = externalLinksMap.get(absoluteUrl) || 0;
-        externalLinksMap.set(absoluteUrl, count + 1);
-      }
-    });
+  // Get all links on the page
+  $('a[href]').each((i, link) => {
+    const href = $(link).attr('href');
+    const absoluteUrl = urlLib.resolve(url, href);
+    
+    // Check if absolute / relative, append to appropriate map or increment occurrence count
+    if (absoluteUrl.startsWith(url)) {
+      const count = internalLinksMap.get(absoluteUrl) || 0;
+      internalLinksMap.set(absoluteUrl, count + 1);
+    } else if (href.startsWith('http://') || href.startsWith('https://')) {
+      const count = externalLinksMap.get(absoluteUrl) || 0;
+      externalLinksMap.set(absoluteUrl, count + 1);
+    }
+  });
 
-    // Convert maps to sorted arrays
-    const internalLinks = [...internalLinksMap.entries()].sort((a, b) => b[1] - a[1]).map(entry => entry[0]);
-    const externalLinks = [...externalLinksMap.entries()].sort((a, b) => b[1] - a[1]).map(entry => entry[0]);
+  // Sort by most occurrences, remove supplicates, and convert to array
+  const internalLinks = [...internalLinksMap.entries()].sort((a, b) => b[1] - a[1]).map(entry => entry[0]);
+  const externalLinks = [...externalLinksMap.entries()].sort((a, b) => b[1] - a[1]).map(entry => entry[0]);
 
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ internal: internalLinks, external: externalLinks }),
-    };
-  } catch (error) {
-    console.log(error);
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'Failed fetching data' }),
-    };
-  }
+  return { internal: internalLinks, external: externalLinks };
 };
+
+exports.handler = commonMiddleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/dns-sec.js b/api/dns-sec.js
index c4cf3f3..5f04044 100644
--- a/api/dns-sec.js
+++ b/api/dns-sec.js
@@ -1,16 +1,7 @@
 const https = require('https');
+const commonMiddleware = require('./_common/middleware'); // Make sure this path is correct
 
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
-  if (!url) {
-    return errorResponse('URL query parameter is required.');
-  }
-
-  // Extract hostname from URL
-  const parsedUrl = new URL(url);
-  const domain = parsedUrl.hostname;
-
+const fetchDNSRecords = async (domain, event, context) => {
   const dnsTypes = ['DNSKEY', 'DS', 'RRSIG'];
   const records = {};
 
@@ -48,22 +39,14 @@ exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
       if (dnsResponse.Answer) {
         records[type] = { isFound: true, answer: dnsResponse.Answer, response: dnsResponse.Answer };
       } else {
-        records[type] = { isFound: false, answer: null, response: dnsResponse};
+        records[type] = { isFound: false, answer: null, response: dnsResponse };
       }
     } catch (error) {
-      return errorResponse(`Error fetching ${type} record: ${error.message}`);
+      throw new Error(`Error fetching ${type} record: ${error.message}`); // This will be caught and handled by the commonMiddleware
     }
   }
 
-  return {
-    statusCode: 200,
-    body: JSON.stringify(records),
-  };
+  return records;
 };
 
-const errorResponse = (message, statusCode = 444) => {
-  return {
-    statusCode: statusCode,
-    body: JSON.stringify({ error: message }),
-  };
-};
+exports.handler = commonMiddleware(fetchDNSRecords);
diff --git a/api/dns-server.js b/api/dns-server.js
index 3bcbe3b..5be9385 100644
--- a/api/dns-server.js
+++ b/api/dns-server.js
@@ -1,12 +1,11 @@
 const dns = require('dns');
 const dnsPromises = dns.promises;
-// const https = require('https');
 const axios = require('axios');
+const commonMiddleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async (event) => {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-  const domain = url.replace(/^(?:https?:\/\/)?/i, "");
+const handler = async (url) => {
   try {
+    const domain = url.replace(/^(?:https?:\/\/)?/i, "");
     const addresses = await dnsPromises.resolve4(domain);
     const results = await Promise.all(addresses.map(async (address) => {
       const hostname = await dnsPromises.reverse(address).catch(() => null);
@@ -23,6 +22,7 @@ exports.handler = async (event) => {
         dohDirectSupports,
       };
     }));
+
     // let dohMozillaSupport = false;
     // try {
     //   const mozillaList = await axios.get('https://firefox.settings.services.mozilla.com/v1/buckets/security-state/collections/onecrl/records');
@@ -30,20 +30,15 @@ exports.handler = async (event) => {
     // } catch (error) {
     //   console.error(error);
     // }
+
     return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({
-        domain,
-        dns: results,
-        // dohMozillaSupport,
-      }),
+      domain,
+      dns: results,
+      // dohMozillaSupport,
     };
   } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({
-        error: `An error occurred while resolving DNS. ${error.message}`,
-      }),
-    };
+    throw new Error(`An error occurred while resolving DNS. ${error.message}`); // This will be caught and handled by the commonMiddleware
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = commonMiddleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/find-url-ip.js b/api/find-url-ip.js
index 30355c9..8df95bc 100644
--- a/api/find-url-ip.js
+++ b/api/find-url-ip.js
@@ -1,33 +1,21 @@
 const dns = require('dns');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-/* Lambda function to fetch the IP address of a given URL */
-exports.handler = function (event, context, callback) {
-  const addressParam = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-  
-  if (!addressParam) {
-    callback(null, errorResponse('Address parameter is missing.'));
-    return;
-  }
-
-  const address = decodeURIComponent(addressParam)
-    .replaceAll('https://', '')
-    .replaceAll('http://', '');
-
-  dns.lookup(address, (err, ip, family) => {
-    if (err) {
-      callback(null, errorResponse(err.message));
-    } else {
-      callback(null, {
-        statusCode: 200,
-        body: JSON.stringify({ ip, family }),
-      });
-    }
+const lookupAsync = (address) => {
+  return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+    dns.lookup(address, (err, ip, family) => {
+      if (err) {
+        reject(err);
+      } else {
+        resolve({ ip, family });
+      }
+    });
   });
 };
 
-const errorResponse = (message, statusCode = 444) => {
-  return {
-    statusCode: statusCode,
-    body: JSON.stringify({ error: message }),
-  };
+const handler = async (url) => {
+  const address = url.replaceAll('https://', '').replaceAll('http://', '');
+  return await lookupAsync(address);
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/follow-redirects.js b/api/follow-redirects.js
index 42b56db..9f53b02 100644
--- a/api/follow-redirects.js
+++ b/api/follow-redirects.js
@@ -1,9 +1,8 @@
-exports.handler = async (event) => {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
+const handler = async (url) => {
   const redirects = [url];
+  const got = await import('got');
 
   try {
-    const got = await import('got');
     await got.default(url, {
       followRedirect: true,
       maxRedirects: 12,
@@ -17,19 +16,12 @@ exports.handler = async (event) => {
     });
 
     return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({
-        redirects: redirects,
-      }),
+      redirects: redirects,
     };
   } catch (error) {
-    return errorResponse(`Error: ${error.message}`);
+    throw new Error(`Error: ${error.message}`);
   }
 };
 
-const errorResponse = (message, statusCode = 444) => {
-  return {
-    statusCode: statusCode,
-    body: JSON.stringify({ error: message }),
-  };
-};
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/get-carbon.js b/api/get-carbon.js
index d975753..42dd6f8 100644
--- a/api/get-carbon.js
+++ b/api/get-carbon.js
@@ -1,14 +1,7 @@
 const https = require('https');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async (event, context) => {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
-  if (!url) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'url query parameter is required' }),
-    };
-  }
+const handler = async (url) => {
 
   // First, get the size of the website's HTML
   const getHtmlSize = (url) => new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
@@ -42,14 +35,10 @@ exports.handler = async (event, context) => {
     });
 
     carbonData.scanUrl = url;
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify(carbonData),
-    };
+    return carbonData;
   } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: `Error: ${error.message}` }),
-    };
+    throw new Error(`Error: ${error.message}`);
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/get-cookies.js b/api/get-cookies.js
index e2c05f2..f24d68a 100644
--- a/api/get-cookies.js
+++ b/api/get-cookies.js
@@ -1,26 +1,14 @@
 const axios = require('axios');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
-  if (!url) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ message: 'url query string parameter is required' }),
-    };
-  }
-
+const handler = async (url, event, context) => {
   try {
     const response = await axios.get(url, {withCredentials: true});
     const cookies = response.headers['set-cookie'];
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ cookies }),
-    };
+    return { cookies };
   } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: error.message }),
-    };
+    throw new Error(error.message);
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/get-dns.js b/api/get-dns.js
index 1be91a2..f7774a9 100644
--- a/api/get-dns.js
+++ b/api/get-dns.js
@@ -1,8 +1,9 @@
 const dns = require('dns');
 const util = require('util');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  let hostname = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
+const handler = async (url) => {
+  let hostname = url;
 
   // Handle URLs by extracting hostname
   if (hostname.startsWith('http://') || hostname.startsWith('https://')) {
@@ -35,25 +36,19 @@ exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
     ]);
 
     return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({
-        A: a,
-        AAAA: aaaa,
-        MX: mx,
-        TXT: txt,
-        NS: ns,
-        CNAME: cname,
-        SOA: soa,
-        SRV: srv,
-        PTR: ptr
-      })
+      A: a,
+      AAAA: aaaa,
+      MX: mx,
+      TXT: txt,
+      NS: ns,
+      CNAME: cname,
+      SOA: soa,
+      SRV: srv,
+      PTR: ptr
     };
   } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({
-        error: error.message
-      })
-    };
+    throw new Error(error.message);
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/get-headers.js b/api/get-headers.js
index 00cf755..79b4c4a 100644
--- a/api/get-headers.js
+++ b/api/get-headers.js
@@ -1,15 +1,7 @@
 const axios = require('axios');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
-  if (!url) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'url query string parameter is required' }),
-    };
-  }
-
+const handler = async (url, event, context) => {
   try {
     const response = await axios.get(url, {
       validateStatus: function (status) {
@@ -17,15 +9,10 @@ exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
       },
     });
 
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify(response.headers),
-    };
+    return response.headers;
   } catch (error) {
-    console.log(error);
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: error.message }),
-    };
+    throw new Error(error.message);
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/get-txt.js b/api/get-txt.js
index cf3883b..f397bc5 100644
--- a/api/get-txt.js
+++ b/api/get-txt.js
@@ -1,17 +1,11 @@
 const dns = require('dns').promises;
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async (event) => {
-  let url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
+const handler = async (url, event, context) => {
   try {
-  url = new URL(url);
-  } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: `Invalid URL ${error}` }),
-    };
-  }
-  try {
-    const txtRecords = await dns.resolveTxt(url.hostname);
+    const parsedUrl = new URL(url);
+    
+    const txtRecords = await dns.resolveTxt(parsedUrl.hostname);
 
     // Parsing and formatting TXT records into a single object
     const readableTxtRecords = txtRecords.reduce((acc, recordArray) => {
@@ -24,15 +18,15 @@ exports.handler = async (event) => {
       return { ...acc, ...recordObject };
     }, {});
 
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify(readableTxtRecords),
-    };
+    return readableTxtRecords;
+
   } catch (error) {
-    console.error('Error:', error);
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: error.message }),
-    };
+    if (error.code === 'ERR_INVALID_URL') {
+      throw new Error(`Invalid URL ${error}`);
+    } else {
+      throw error;
+    }
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/lighthouse-report.js b/api/lighthouse-report.js
index ab76aff..2c606db 100644
--- a/api/lighthouse-report.js
+++ b/api/lighthouse-report.js
@@ -1,40 +1,22 @@
 const axios = require('axios');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = function(event, context, callback) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
-  if (!url) {
-    callback(null, {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'URL param is required'}),
-    });
-  }
-
+const handler = async (url, event, context) => {
   const apiKey = process.env.GOOGLE_CLOUD_API_KEY;
 
+  if (!url) {
+    throw new Error('URL param is required');
+  }
+
   if (!apiKey) {
-    callback(null, {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'API key (GOOGLE_CLOUD_API_KEY) not set'}),
-    });
+    throw new Error('API key (GOOGLE_CLOUD_API_KEY) not set');
   }
 
   const endpoint = `https://www.googleapis.com/pagespeedonline/v5/runPagespeed?url=${encodeURIComponent(url)}&category=PERFORMANCE&category=ACCESSIBILITY&category=BEST_PRACTICES&category=SEO&category=PWA&strategy=mobile&key=${apiKey}`;
+
+  const response = await axios.get(endpoint);
   
-  axios.get(endpoint)
-  .then(
-    (response) => {
-      callback(null, {
-        statusCode: 200,
-        body: JSON.stringify(response.data),
-      });
-    }
-  ).catch(
-    () => {
-      callback(null, {
-        statusCode: 500,
-        body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'Error running Lighthouse'}),
-      });
-    }
-  );
+  return response.data;
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(handler);
diff --git a/api/screenshot.js b/api/screenshot.js
index 75f1741..49906f0 100644
--- a/api/screenshot.js
+++ b/api/screenshot.js
@@ -1,16 +1,11 @@
 const puppeteer = require('puppeteer-core');
 const chromium = require('chrome-aws-lambda');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async (event, context, callback) => {
-  let browser = null;
-  let targetUrl = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
+const screenshotHandler = async (targetUrl) => {
 
   if (!targetUrl) {
-    callback(null, {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'URL is missing from queryStringParameters' }),
-    });
-    return;
+    throw new Error('URL is missing from queryStringParameters');
   }
 
   if (!targetUrl.startsWith('http://') && !targetUrl.startsWith('https://')) {
@@ -20,13 +15,10 @@ exports.handler = async (event, context, callback) => {
   try {
     new URL(targetUrl);
   } catch (error) {
-    callback(null, {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'URL provided is invalid' }),
-    });
-    return;
+    throw new Error('URL provided is invalid');
   }
 
+  let browser = null;
   try {
       browser = await puppeteer.launch({
       args: chromium.args,
@@ -40,9 +32,7 @@ exports.handler = async (event, context, callback) => {
     let page = await browser.newPage();
 
     await page.emulateMediaFeatures([{ name: 'prefers-color-scheme', value: 'dark' }]);
-
     page.setDefaultNavigationTimeout(8000);
-
     await page.goto(targetUrl, { waitUntil: 'domcontentloaded' });
 
     await page.evaluate(() => {
@@ -57,24 +47,15 @@ exports.handler = async (event, context, callback) => {
     });
 
     const screenshotBuffer = await page.screenshot();
-
     const base64Screenshot = screenshotBuffer.toString('base64');
 
-    const response = {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ image: base64Screenshot }),
-    };
+    return { image: base64Screenshot };
 
-    callback(null, response);
-  } catch (error) {
-    console.log(error);
-    callback(null, {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: `An error occurred: ${error.message}` }),
-    });
   } finally {
     if (browser !== null) {
       await browser.close();
     }
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(screenshotHandler);
diff --git a/api/security-txt.js b/api/security-txt.js
index 78ded4c..c2cd59c 100644
--- a/api/security-txt.js
+++ b/api/security-txt.js
@@ -1,5 +1,6 @@
 const { https } = require('follow-redirects');
 const { URL } = require('url');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
 const SECURITY_TXT_PATHS = [
   '/security.txt',
@@ -37,59 +38,39 @@ const isPgpSigned = (result) => {
   return false;
 };
 
-exports.handler = async (event, context) => {
-  const urlParam = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-  if (!urlParam) {
-    return { 
-      statusCode: 400, 
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'Missing url parameter' }) 
-    };
-  }
+const securityTxtHandler = async (urlParam) => {
 
   let url;
   try {
     url = new URL(urlParam.includes('://') ? urlParam : 'https://' + urlParam);
   } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'Invalid URL format' }),
-    };
+    throw new Error('Invalid URL format');
   }
   url.pathname = '';
   
   for (let path of SECURITY_TXT_PATHS) {
     try {
       const result = await fetchSecurityTxt(url, path);
-      if (result && result.includes('<html')) return {
-        statusCode: 200,
-        body: JSON.stringify({ isPresent: false }),
-      };
+      if (result && result.includes('<html')) return { isPresent: false };
       if (result) {
         return {
-          statusCode: 200,
-          body: JSON.stringify({
-            isPresent: true,
-            foundIn: path,
-            content: result,
-            isPgpSigned: isPgpSigned(result),
-            fields: parseResult(result),
-          }),
+          isPresent: true,
+          foundIn: path,
+          content: result,
+          isPgpSigned: isPgpSigned(result),
+          fields: parseResult(result),
         };
       }
     } catch (error) {
-      return {
-        statusCode: 500,
-        body: JSON.stringify({ error: error.message }),
-      };
+      throw new Error(error.message);
     }
   }
   
-  return {
-    statusCode: 404,
-    body: JSON.stringify({ isPresent: false }),
-  };
+  return { isPresent: false };
 };
 
+exports.handler = middleware(securityTxtHandler);
+
 async function fetchSecurityTxt(baseURL, path) {
   return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
     const url = new URL(path, baseURL);
diff --git a/api/server-status.js b/api/server-status.js
index 242df31..ce4f478 100644
--- a/api/server-status.js
+++ b/api/server-status.js
@@ -1,14 +1,10 @@
 const https = require('https');
 const { performance, PerformanceObserver } = require('perf_hooks');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
+const checkURLHandler = async (url) => {
   if (!url) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'You must provide a URL query parameter!' }),
-    };
+    throw new Error('You must provide a URL query parameter!');
   }
 
   let dnsLookupTime;
@@ -43,10 +39,7 @@ exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
     });
 
     if (responseCode < 200 || responseCode >= 400) {
-      return {
-        statusCode: 200,
-        body: JSON.stringify({ error: `Received non-success response code: ${responseCode}` }),
-      };
+      throw new Error(`Received non-success response code: ${responseCode}`);
     }
 
     performance.mark('B');
@@ -54,16 +47,12 @@ exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
     let responseTime = performance.now() - startTime;
     obs.disconnect();
 
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ isUp: true, dnsLookupTime, responseTime, responseCode }),
-    };
+    return { isUp: true, dnsLookupTime, responseTime, responseCode };
 
   } catch (error) {
     obs.disconnect();
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: `Error during operation: ${error.message}` }),
-    };
+    throw error;
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(checkURLHandler);
diff --git a/api/site-features.js b/api/site-features.js
index d9b6486..ced8757 100644
--- a/api/site-features.js
+++ b/api/site-features.js
@@ -1,22 +1,15 @@
 const https = require('https');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function (event, context) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
+const builtWithHandler = async (url) => {
   const apiKey = process.env.BUILT_WITH_API_KEY;
 
-  const errorResponse = (message, statusCode = 500) => {
-    return {
-      statusCode: statusCode,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: message }),
-    };
-  };
-
   if (!url) {
-    return errorResponse('URL query parameter is required', 400);
+    throw new Error('URL query parameter is required');
   }
 
   if (!apiKey) {
-    return errorResponse('Missing BuiltWith API key in environment variables', 500);
+    throw new Error('Missing BuiltWith API key in environment variables');
   }
 
   const apiUrl = `https://api.builtwith.com/free1/api.json?KEY=${apiKey}&LOOKUP=${encodeURIComponent(url)}`;
@@ -46,11 +39,10 @@ exports.handler = async function (event, context) {
       req.end();
     });
 
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: response,
-    };
+    return response;
   } catch (error) {
-    return errorResponse(`Error making request: ${error.message}`);
+    throw new Error(`Error making request: ${error.message}`);
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(builtWithHandler);
diff --git a/api/sitemap.js b/api/sitemap.js
index 149835f..f68cce0 100644
--- a/api/sitemap.js
+++ b/api/sitemap.js
@@ -1,10 +1,8 @@
 const axios = require('axios');
 const xml2js = require('xml2js');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async (event) => {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-  // const baseUrl = event.queryStringParameters.url.replace(/^(?:https?:\/\/)?/i, "");
-  // const url = baseUrl.startsWith('http') ? baseUrl : `http://${baseUrl}`;
+const fetchSitemapHandler = async (url) => {
   let sitemapUrl;
 
   try {
@@ -19,24 +17,17 @@ exports.handler = async (event) => {
     }
 
     if (!sitemapUrl) {
-      return {
-        statusCode: 404,
-        body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'Sitemap not found in robots.txt' }),
-      };
+      throw new Error('Sitemap not found in robots.txt');
     }
 
     // Fetch sitemap
     const sitemapRes = await axios.get(sitemapUrl);
     const sitemap = await xml2js.parseStringPromise(sitemapRes.data);
 
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify(sitemap),
-    };
+    return sitemap;
   } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: error.message }),
-    };
+    throw new Error(error.message);
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(fetchSitemapHandler);
diff --git a/api/ssl-check.js b/api/ssl-check.js
index f87b66a..22d998f 100644
--- a/api/ssl-check.js
+++ b/api/ssl-check.js
@@ -1,43 +1,28 @@
 const https = require('https');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function (event, context) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
-  const errorResponse = (message, statusCode = 500) => {
-    return {
-      statusCode: statusCode,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: message }),
-    };
-  };
-
-  if (!url) {
-    return errorResponse('URL query parameter is required', 400);
-  }
-
+const fetchSiteCertificateHandler = async (url) => {
   try {
     const response = await new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
       const req = https.request(url, res => {
-
+        
         // Check if the SSL handshake was authorized
         if (!res.socket.authorized) {
-          resolve(errorResponse(`SSL handshake not authorized. Reason: ${res.socket.authorizationError}`));
+          reject(new Error(`SSL handshake not authorized. Reason: ${res.socket.authorizationError}`));
         } else {
           let cert = res.socket.getPeerCertificate(true);
           if (!cert || Object.keys(cert).length === 0) {
-            resolve(errorResponse("No certificate presented by the server."));
+            reject(new Error("No certificate presented by the server."));
           } else {
             // omit the raw and issuerCertificate fields
             const { raw, issuerCertificate, ...certWithoutRaw } = cert;
-            resolve({
-              statusCode: 200,
-              body: JSON.stringify(certWithoutRaw),
-            });
+            resolve(certWithoutRaw);
           }
         }
       });
 
       req.on('error', error => {
-        resolve(errorResponse(`Error fetching site certificate: ${error.message}`));
+        reject(new Error(`Error fetching site certificate: ${error.message}`));
       });
 
       req.end();
@@ -45,6 +30,8 @@ exports.handler = async function (event, context) {
 
     return response;
   } catch (error) {
-    return errorResponse(`Unexpected error occurred: ${error.message}`);
+    throw new Error(error.message);
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(fetchSiteCertificateHandler);
diff --git a/api/tech-stack.js b/api/tech-stack.js
index 596ba52..5820f6d 100644
--- a/api/tech-stack.js
+++ b/api/tech-stack.js
@@ -1,69 +1,30 @@
 const Wappalyzer = require('wappalyzer');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-const analyze = async (url) => {
-
+const analyzeSiteTechnologies = async (url) => {
   const options = {};
 
   const wappalyzer = new Wappalyzer(options);
-  return (async function() {
-    try {
-      await wappalyzer.init()
-      const headers = {}
-      const storage = {
-        local: {},
-        session: {},
-      }
-      const site = await wappalyzer.open(url, headers, storage)
-      const results = await site.analyze()
-      return results;
-    } catch (error) {
-      return error;
-    } finally {
-      await wappalyzer.destroy()
-    }
-  })();
-}
 
-exports.handler = async (event, context, callback) => {
-  // Validate URL parameter
-  if (!(event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 400,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'Missing url parameter' }),
-    };
-  }
-
-  // Get URL from param
-  let url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-  if (!/^https?:\/\//i.test(url)) {
-    url = 'http://' + url;
-  }
-  
   try {
-    return analyze(url).then(
-      (results) => {
-        if (!results.technologies || results.technologies.length === 0) {
-          return {
-            statusCode: 200,
-            body: JSON.stringify({ error: 'Unable to find any technologies for site' }),
-          };
-        }
-        return {
-          statusCode: 200,
-          body: JSON.stringify(results),
-        }
-      }
-    )
-    .catch((error) => {
-      return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: error.message }),
-      };
-    });
-  } catch (error) {
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({ error: error.message }),
+    await wappalyzer.init();
+    const headers = {};
+    const storage = {
+      local: {},
+      session: {},
     };
+    const site = await wappalyzer.open(url, headers, storage);
+    const results = await site.analyze();
+
+    if (!results.technologies || results.technologies.length === 0) {
+      throw new Error('Unable to find any technologies for site');
+    }
+    return results;
+  } catch (error) {
+    throw new Error(error.message);
+  } finally {
+    await wappalyzer.destroy();
   }
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(analyzeSiteTechnologies);
diff --git a/api/trace-route.js b/api/trace-route.js
index 8d8525e..8d7b10b 100644
--- a/api/trace-route.js
+++ b/api/trace-route.js
@@ -1,55 +1,31 @@
 const traceroute = require('traceroute');
 const url = require('url');
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  const urlString = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
+const executeTraceroute = async (urlString, context) => {
+  // Parse the URL and get the hostname
+  const urlObject = url.parse(urlString);
+  const host = urlObject.hostname;
 
-  try {
-    if (!urlString) {
-      throw new Error('URL parameter is missing!');
-    }
+  if (!host) {
+    throw new Error('Invalid URL provided');
+  }
 
-    // Parse the URL and get the hostname
-    const urlObject = url.parse(urlString);
-    const host = urlObject.hostname;
-
-    if (!host) {
-      throw new Error('Invalid URL provided');
-    }
-
-    // Traceroute with callback
-    const result = await new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
-      traceroute.trace(host, (err, hops) => {
-        if (err || !hops) {
-          reject(err || new Error('No hops found'));
-        } else {
-          resolve(hops);
-        }
-      });
-
-      // Check if remaining time is less than 8.8 seconds, then reject promise
-      if (context.getRemainingTimeInMillis() < 8800) {
-        reject(new Error('Lambda is about to timeout'));
+  // Traceroute with callback
+  const result = await new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+    traceroute.trace(host, (err, hops) => {
+      if (err || !hops) {
+        reject(err || new Error('No hops found'));
+      } else {
+        resolve(hops);
       }
     });
+  });
 
-    return {
-      statusCode: 200,
-      body: JSON.stringify({
-        message: "Traceroute completed!",
-        result,
-      }),
-    };
-  } catch (err) {
-    const message = err.code === 'ENOENT'
-      ? 'Traceroute command is not installed on the host.'
-      : err.message;
-
-    return {
-      statusCode: 500,
-      body: JSON.stringify({
-        error: message,
-      }),
-    };
-  }
+  return {
+    message: "Traceroute completed!",
+    result,
+  };
 };
+
+exports.handler = middleware(executeTraceroute);
diff --git a/api/whois-lookup.js b/api/whois-lookup.js
index 3b6ba3e..69e5674 100644
--- a/api/whois-lookup.js
+++ b/api/whois-lookup.js
@@ -1,14 +1,6 @@
 const net = require('net');
 const psl = require('psl');
-// const { URL } = require('url');
-
-const errorResponse = (message, statusCode = 444) => {
-  return {
-    statusCode: statusCode,
-    body: JSON.stringify({ error: message }),
-  };
-};
-
+const middleware = require('./_common/middleware');
 
 const getBaseDomain = (url) => {
   let protocol = '';
@@ -22,55 +14,7 @@ const getBaseDomain = (url) => {
   return protocol + parsed.domain;
 };
 
-
-exports.handler = async function(event, context) {
-  const url = (event.queryStringParameters || event.query).url;
-
-  if (!url) {
-    return errorResponse('URL query parameter is required.', 400);
-  }
-
-  if (!url.startsWith('http://') && !url.startsWith('https://')) {
-    url = 'http://' + url;
-  }
-
-  let hostname;
-  try {
-    hostname = getBaseDomain(new URL(url).hostname);
-  } catch (error) {
-    return errorResponse(`Unable to parse URL: ${error}`, 400);
-  }
-
-  return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
-    const client = net.createConnection({ port: 43, host: 'whois.internic.net' }, () => {
-      client.write(hostname + '\r\n');
-    });
-
-    let data = '';
-    client.on('data', (chunk) => {
-      data += chunk;
-    });
-
-    client.on('end', () => {
-      try {
-        const parsedData = parseWhoisData(data);
-        resolve({
-          statusCode: 200,
-          body: JSON.stringify(parsedData),
-        });
-      } catch (error) {
-        resolve(errorResponse(error.message));
-      }
-    });
-
-    client.on('error', (err) => {
-      resolve(errorResponse(err.message, 500));
-    });
-  });
-};
-
 const parseWhoisData = (data) => {
-
   if (data.includes('No match for')) {
     return { error: 'No matches found for domain in internic database'};
   }
@@ -100,3 +44,41 @@ const parseWhoisData = (data) => {
   return parsedData;
 };
 
+const fetchWhoisData = async (url) => {
+  if (!url.startsWith('http://') && !url.startsWith('https://')) {
+    url = 'http://' + url;
+  }
+
+  let hostname;
+  try {
+    hostname = getBaseDomain(new URL(url).hostname);
+  } catch (error) {
+    throw new Error(`Unable to parse URL: ${error}`);
+  }
+
+  return new Promise((resolve, reject) => {
+    const client = net.createConnection({ port: 43, host: 'whois.internic.net' }, () => {
+      client.write(hostname + '\r\n');
+    });
+
+    let data = '';
+    client.on('data', (chunk) => {
+      data += chunk;
+    });
+
+    client.on('end', () => {
+      try {
+        const parsedData = parseWhoisData(data);
+        resolve(parsedData);
+      } catch (error) {
+        reject(error);
+      }
+    });
+
+    client.on('error', (err) => {
+      reject(err);
+    });
+  });
+};
+
+exports.handler = middleware(fetchWhoisData);